by their countrymen； and which formed their own character； they record their views of their
political relations； and of their moral and spiritual nature； and the principle of their designs and
conduct。 What the historian puts into their mouths is no supposititious system of ideas； but an
uncorrupted transcript of their intellectual and moral habitudes。
§ 4
Of these historians； whom we must make thoroughly our own； with whom we must linger long； if
we would live with their respective nations； and enter deeply into their spirit： of these historians； to
whose pages we may turn not for the purpose of erudition merely； but with a view to deep and
genuine enjoyment； there are fewer than might be imagined。 Herodotus the Father； i。e。 the
Founder of History and Thucydides have been already mentioned。 Xenophon's Retreat of the
Ten Thousand is a work equally original。 Caesar's mentaries are the simple masterpiece of
a mighty spirit。 Among the ancients； these annalists were necessarily great captains and statesmen。
In the Middle Ages； if we except the Bishops； who were placed in the very centre of the political
world； the Monks monopolise this category as naive chroniclers who were as decidedly isolated
from active life as those elder annalists had been connected with it。 In modern times the relations
are entirely altered。 Our culture is essentially prehensive and immediately changes all events
into historical representations。 Belonging to the class in question； we have vivid； simple； clear
narrations — especially of military transactions — which might fairly take their place with those of
Caesar。 In richness of matter and fullness of detail as regards strategic appliances； and attendant
circumstances； they are even more instructive。 The French 〃Memoires〃 also fall under this
category。 In many cases these are written by men of mark； though relating to affairs of little note。
They not unfrequently contain a large proportion of anecdotal matter； so that the ground they
occupy is narrow and trivial。 Yet they are often veritable masterpieces in history； as those of
Cardinal Retz； which in fact trench on a larger historical field。 In Germany such masters are rare。
Frederick the Great （Histoire de mon temps） is an illustrious exception。 Writers of this order
must occupy an elevated position。 Only from such a position is it possible to take an extensive
view of affairs — to see everything。 This is out of the question for him； who from below merely
gets a glimpse of the great world through a miserable cranny。
II。 Reflective History
1。 Universal History … 2。 Pragmatical History … 3。 Critical History
§ 5
The second kind of history we may call the reflective。 It is history whose mode of representation
is not really confined by the limits of the time to which it relates； but whose spirit transcends the
present。 In this second order strongly marked variety of species may be distinguished。
1。 Universal History
§ 6
It is the aim of the investigator to gain a view of the entire history of a people or a country； or of
the world； in short； what we call Universal History。 In this case the working up of the historical
material is the main point。 The workman approaches his task with his own spirit； a spirit distinct
from that of the element he is to manipulate。 Here a very important consideration will be the
principles to which the author refers； the bearing and motives of the actions and events which he
describes； and those which determine the form of his narrative。 Among us Germans this reflective
treatment and the display of ingenuity which it occasions； assume a manifold variety of phases。
Every writer of history proposes to himself an original method。 The English and French confess to
general principles of historical position。 Their standpoint is more that of cosmopolitan or of
national culture。 Among us each labours to invent a purely individual point of view。 Instead of
writing history； we are always beating our brains to discover how history ought to be written。 This
first kind of Reflective History is most nearly akin to the preceding； when it has no farther aim than
to present the annals of a country plete。 Such pilations （among which may be reckoned
the works of Livy； Diodorus Siculus； Johannes von Müller's History of Switzerland） are； if well
performed； highly meritorious。 Among the best of the kind may be reckoned such annalist as
approach those of the first class； who give so vivid a transcript of events that the reader may well
fancy himself listening to contemporaries and eye…witnesses。 But it often happens that the
individuality of tone which must characterise a writer belonging to a different culture； is not
modified in accordance with the periods such a record must traverse。 The spirit of the writer is
quite other than that of the times of which he treats。 Thus Livy puts into the mouths of the old
Roman kings； consuls； and generals； such orations as would be delivered by an acplished
advocate of the Livian era； and which strikingly contrast with the genuine traditions of Roman
antiquity （e。g。 the fable of Menenius Agrippa）。 In the same way he gives us descriptions of battles；
as if he bad been an actual spectator； but whose features would serve well enough for battles in
any period； and whose distinctness contrasts on the other hand with the want of connection and
the inconsistency that prevail elsewhere； even in his treatment of chief points of interest。 The
difference between such a piler and an original historian may be best seen by paring
Polybius himself with the style in which Livy uses； expands； and abridges his annals in those
period； of which Polybius's account has been preserved。 Johann von Müller has given a stiff；
formal； pedantic aspect of history； in the endeavour to remain faithful in his portraiture to the times
he describes。 We much prefer the narratives we find in old Tschudy。 All is more naive and natural
than it appears in the garb of a fictitious and affected archaism。
§ 7
A history which aspires to traverse long periods of time； or to be universal； must indeed forego the
attempt to give individual representations of the past as it actually existed。 It must foreshorten its
pictures by abstractions； and this includes not merely the omission of events and deeds； but
whatever is involved in the fact that Thought is； after all； the most trenchant epitomist。 A battle； a
great victory； a siege； no longer maintains its original proportions； but is put off with a bare
mention。 When Livy e。g。 tells us of the wars with the Volsci； we sometimes have the brief
announcement： “This year war was carried on with the Volsci。”
2。 Pragmatical History
§ 8
A second species of Reflective History is what we may call the Pragmatical。 When we have to
deal with the Past； and occupy ourselves with a remote world a Present rises into being for the
mind … produced by its own activity； as the reward of its labour。 The occurrences are； indeed；
various； but the idea which pervades them … their deeper import and connection … is one。 This
takes the occurrence out of the category of the Past and makes it virtually Present。 Pragmatical
（didactic） reflections； though in their nature decidedly abstract； are truly and indefeasibly of the
Present； and quicken the annals of the dead Past with the life of today。 Whether； indeed such
reflections are truly interesting and enlivening； depends on the writer's own spirit。 Moral reflections
must here be specially noticed； … the moral teaching expected from history； which latter has not
unfrequently been treated with a direct view to the former。 It may be allowed that examples of
virtue elevate the soul； and are applicable in the moral instructions of children for impressing
excellence upon their minds。 But the destinies of peoples and states； their interests； relations； and
the plicated issue of their affairs； present quite another field。 Rulers； Statesmen； Nations； are
wont to be emphatically mended to the teaching which experience offers in history。 But what
experience and history teach is this； … that peoples and governments never have learned anything
from history； or acted on principles deduced from it。 Each period is involved in such peculiar
circumstances； exhibits a condition of things so strictly idiosyncratic； that its conduct must be
regulated by considerations connected with itself； and itself alone。 Amid the pressure of great
events； a general principle gives no help。 It is useless to revert to similar circumstances in the Past。
The pallid shades of memory struggle in vain with the life and freedom of the Present。 Looked at in
this light； nothing can be shallower than the oft…repeated appeal to Greek and Roman examples
during the French Revolution。 Nothing is more diverse than the genius of those nations and that of
our times。 Johannes v。 Müller； in his Universal History as also in his History of Switzerland； had
such mora